Pulmonary fungal granulomas and fibrinous pneumonia caused by different hypocrealean fungi in reptiles.

In contrast to fungal dermatitis, fungal glossitis and disseminated visceral mycosis, fungal infection of the lung has so far rarely been described in reptiles. Pulmonary fungal granulomas were diagnosed histopathologically within the scope of post mortem examinations. Fragments of the 18S-internal transcribed spacer1-5.8S rDNA (SSU-ITS1-5.8S) and 28S rDNA (LSU), including domains (D)1 and D2 as well as the protein coding gene translation elongation factor 1 alpha (TEF) were used for phylogenetical analysis after isolation of the fungal pathogen by culturing. Ten reptiles, including lizards (n = 6), snakes (n = 1), crocodilians (n = 2) and tortoises (n = 1) presented with pulmonary fungal granulomas (n = 8) and fibrinous pneumonia (n = 2) caused by different non-clavicipitaceous and clavicipitaceous species of the order Hypocreales. Purpureocillium lavendulum (n = 2) and Metarhizium robertsii (n = 1) as the etiologic agents of pneumonia in reptile species are described for the first time. Fungal pulmonary granulomas caused by clavicipitaceous fungi (n = 6) were all associated with disseminated visceral mycosis as well as oral fungal granulomas (n = 4) and/or fungal dermatitis (n = 1). Differing infection routes being likely for clavicipitaceous and non-clavicipitaceous fungal pathogens. A potential zoonotic health risk should be taken into account during necropsy or lung sampling in live reptiles with pulmonary fungal granulomas, since human infections, mainly keratitis and sclerokeratitis, caused by Beauveria bassiana, Metarhizium robertsii and Purpureocillium lilacinum, have occasionally been described.

Fungal dermatitis, glossitis and disseminated visceral mycosis caused by different Metarhizium granulomatis genotypes in veiled chameleons (Chamaeleo calyptratus) and first isolation in healthy lizards.

Metarhizium (M.) granulomatis (formerly Chamaeleomyces granulomatis) invariably causes fatal fungal glossitis and systemic mycosis in veiled chameleons (Chamaeleo calyptratus). Isolation of M. granulomatis in other lizards thus far has not been described. The aim of this study therefore was to obtain information on the presence of M. granulomatis in reptiles kept as pets, and to examine whether there was an association between specific genotypes and clinical/pathological outcomes. Besides 18S ribosomal (r) DNA (SSU) and internal transcribed spacer1-5.8S (ITS1-5.8S) rDNA, a fragment of the large subunit of the 28S rDNA (LSU), including the domains 1 (D1) and D2, were sequenced for identification of the fungus and phylogenetic analysis. Metarhizium granulomatis was isolated from 23 veiled chameleons, two panther chameleons (Furcifer pardalis) and one central bearded dragon (Pogona vitticeps). Only the veiled chameleons revealed corresponding pathological findings in the form of glossal hemorrhage, granulomatous glossitis, pharyngitis, dermatitis and/or visceral mycosis. The infection site correlated to survival times of infected veiled chameleons. Combined long-term treatment with terbinafine and nystatin based on susceptibility testing may be helpful for prevention of disease and visceral spreading of the fungus, but elimination of the fungal pathogen or successful treatment of diseased veiled chameleons have not been achieved yet. Sequencing of the ribosomal genes yielded five different genotypes, with genotype A being strongly correlated with dermatitis, and remaining genotypes with pharyngitis and glossitis. However, disseminated visceral mycosis developed irrespective of the genotypes.

Characterization of Metarhizium viride Mycosis in Veiled Chameleons (Chamaeleo calyptratus), Panther Chameleons (Furcifer pardalis), and Inland Bearded Dragons (Pogona vitticeps).

Metarhizium viride has been associated with fatal systemic mycoses in chameleons, but subsequent data on mycoses caused by this fungus in reptiles are lacking. The aim of this investigation was therefore to obtain information on the presence of M. viride in reptiles kept as pets in captivity and its association with clinical signs and pathological findings as well as improvement of diagnostic procedures. Beside 18S ribosomal DNA (rDNA) (small subunit [SSU]) and internal transcribed spacer region 1 (ITS-1), a fragment of the large subunit (LSU) of 28S rDNA, including domain 1 (D1) and D2, was sequenced for the identification of the fungus and phylogenetic analysis. Cultural isolation and histopathological examinations as well as the pattern of antifungal drug resistance, determined by using agar diffusion testing, were additionally used for comparison of the isolates. In total, 20 isolates from eight inland bearded dragons (Pogona vitticeps), six veiled chameleons (Chamaeleo calyptratus), and six panther chameleons (Furcifer pardalis) were examined. Most of the lizards suffered from fungal glossitis, stomatitis, and pharyngitis or died due to visceral mycosis. Treatment with different antifungal drugs according to resistance patterns in all three different lizard species was unsuccessful. Sequence analysis resulted in four different genotypes of M. viride based on differences in the LSU fragment, whereas the SSU and ITS-1 were identical in all isolates. Sequence analysis of the SSU fragment revealed the first presentation of a valid large fragment of the SSU of M. viride According to statistical analysis, genotypes did not correlate with differences in pathogenicity, antifungal susceptibility, or species specificity.

[Comparative field study of litter moisture and footpad alterations during the rearing period of fattening turkeys]. / Vergleichende Feldstudie zur Einstreu- feuchtigkeit und zur Fussballengesundheit während der Aufzucht von Mastputen.

In the course of a nationwide performed field study from 2010 to 2012, the footpad health of conventionally kept fattening turkeys and their rearing conditions were studied and compared to results from litter moisture measurements. In each case two rearing periods from 24 rearing farms were chosen and visited 3 to 5 days after delivery of the poults (examination 1) and again during the days 22 to 35 (examination 2). In the course of each flock inspection 60 randomly chosen turkeys were examined by adspection and palpation. Litter samples from drinking, feeding and resting areas were taken using the Darr procedure to measure moisture. Data regarding rearing conditions was collected from the farmer using standardized questionnaires. The litter moisture was 10% (6-20%) before the birds' entered the barn. At the time of examination 1 litter moisture of 43% (14-67%) in the drinking zone, 28% (12-66%) in the feeding zone, and 13% (8-31%) in the resting area were measured. At the time of examination 2 the litter moisture measurements showed 51% (32-72%) in the drinking zone, 27% (13-56% in the feeding zone and 28% (16-53%) in the resting area. At the time of examination 127.3% of the poults had footpad alterations, during examination 2 that number increased to 63.3% with 12.1% showing epithelial necrosis. The young turkeys on the three most commonly used litter substrates showed the following results at the time of examination 2: when held on straw pellets 58%, on wood shavings 29%, and on straw 17% showed unaltered footpads. Regarding the housing conditions the examinations showed specifically differences in stocking rate, drinking system and litter management.

Optical coherence tomography as a diagnostic tool for retinal pathologies in avian ophthalmology.

PURPOSE: Optical coherence tomography (OCT) is an established diagnostic tool for retinal pathologies in human eyes and has been adapted to small animal models. However, there have been only a few attempts to use OCT for examination of avian eyes, and little is known about structural details of healthy or pathologically affected retinas in living birds. METHODS: We used SD-OCT (high-resolution spectral domain OCT) to investigate eyes of various avian species including birds of prey. The birds were anesthetized by isoflurane application during OCT examination. Eyes of a common buzzard (Buteo buteo) could be used for a comparative analysis of OCT images and histologic/immunohistochemical examinations. RESULTS: We investigated 45 wild and domestic birds (25 different species, 40 g-7.7 kg body mass) without and with diverse pathologic indications (e.g., body or head trauma). Animals were generally and ophthalmologically examined, and the diagnostic findings of direct ophthalmoscopy and OCT were compared. The OCT examination revealed an increased number of animals with clinical findings and allowed a detailed assessment of structural changes in retinal and choroidal tissue compared to simple direct ophthalmoscopy. Common findings were retinal and choroidal degeneration, retinal detachment, choroidal schisis, drusen, and drusenoid changes. Histologic and immunohistochemical analysis of retinal tissue confirmed the findings of the OCT examination. CONCLUSIONS: Spectral domain OCT of eyes in living birds is applicable and useful as a diagnostic tool in veterinary clinical practices and for vision research in general. Optical coherence tomography improves the quality of the common assessment methods in avian ophthalmology, and expands the diagnostic possibilities with respect to identification and prognosis of diseases. This will be particularly important for hereditary retinal defects, especially of precious breeding individuals, or estimation of treatment success in traumatized wild birds with the aim of release back into the wild.

[Effects of the housing climate on the foot pad health of fattening turkeys of British United Turkeys 6 origin during the early rearing phase]. / Auswirkungen des Stallklimas auf die Fussballengesundheit von Mastputen der Herkunft B.U.T. 6 in der Aufzuchtphase.

The climate in the stables during the turkeys' first weeks of life is a crucial factor for a successful rearing and the following fattening period. The present study has examined the influence of climate parameters on the foot pad health status of 2681 fattened turkeys from twelve farms during the early rearing phase. In addition to wide-ranging collections of data concerning livestock husbandry and management an examination of the foot pads of 60 animals has been carried out respectively on day 3-5, as well as on day 22-35, shortly before relocation into another stable. For assessing the foot pads a scheme of five categories has been used (ranging from category 0 = no alteration to category 4 = deep lesion). Solely beak trimmed turkeys of the British United Turkeys (BUT) 6 strain, male and female, were examined. In twelve farms air temperature and humidity have been recorded continuously, ammonia and dust concentration were registered on each day of the examination. When assessing the foot pads, the first alterations could already be noted at the age of 3-5 days. On the second period of exzmination 55.6% of the turkeys showed category 2 or category 3. Examinations of the climate parameters showed strong differences concerning temperature, humidity and ammonia concentration among all farms. Using the Fisher's Exact Test, significant dependency of foot pad health on starting temperature (p < 0.001), on temperature measured one week before the second examination (p = 0.004), on humidity (p < 0.001), and on air ammonia concentration (p < 0.001) could be indicated.

A complicated, metastatic, humeral air sac cystadenocarcinoma in a timneh African grey parrot (Psittacus erithacus timneh).

A 9-year-old male timneh African grey parrot (Psittacus erithacus timneh) was presented because of inability to fly and suspected trauma. The owner also had observed dyspnea, with tail bobbing and open-beak breathing. On clinical examination, a hard, painful mass was palpable in the left proximal humerus and axillary area. Radiographs revealed a radiodense soft tissue mass of the left humerus with no bony involvement, multifocal opacities in lung and air sacs, and an enlarged spleen. An asymmetric, vascularized cyst was detected in the mass by ultrasound examination. Results of biopsy of the mass revealed multifocal cysts composed of unilayer isoprismatic cells laying in vascularized connective tissue. Because of the severity of clinical signs and the poor clinical condition, the bird was euthanatized. On postmortem examination, the findings were air sac cystadenocarcinoma involving the humeral air sac with metastases in the spleen and kidneys, atherosclerosis, pneumoconiosis, and mycotic granulomatous pneumonia and airsacculitis with isolation of Aspergillus niger.

Impact of Selected Factors on the Occurrence of Contact Dermatitis in Turkeys on Commercial Farms in Germany.

In a long term research project in Germany the influence of husbandry on the health of fattening turkeys (Study 1) as well as the influence of practiced rearing conditions on the health of turkey poults (Study 2) was examined in 24 farms and at the meat processing plant. In all examined rearing farms, litter samples for the determination of litter moisture were taken. This paper summarizes the results obtained by our working group from 2007 until 2012. The results elucidate the universal problem of foot pad dermatitis (FPD). Nearly 100% of the observed turkeys showed a clinically apparent FPD at the meat processing plant. Furthermore, skin lesions of the breast, especially breast buttons were diagnosed, particularly at the slaughterhouse. FPD was detected in the first week of the rearing phase. Prevalence and degree showed a progressive development up to the age of 22-35 days, whereas 63.3% of the poults had foot pad alterations. As even mild alterations in the foot pad condition can be indicators for suboptimal design of the rearing environment, especially high litter moisture, it is important to focus on the early rearing phase.

[Influence of litter moisture around drinkers and feeders on foot pad health status of fattening turkeys during the early rearing period]. / Einfluss der Einstreufeuchte im Futter- und Tränkebereich auf die Fussballengesundheit von Mastputen in der Aufzuchtphase.

The present study demonstrates the influence of increased litter moisture (LM) around drinkers and feeders on the foot pad health status of fattening turkeys during the rearing period. Therefore 154 day-old British United Turkeys (B.U.T.) 6 turkey poults (77 males, 77 females) were kept on softwood shavings with different moisture contents for a time period of 29 days. Separated by gender the poults were randomly allotted to two test groups and one control group. Birds in test groups were kept on defined litter moisture contents of 30% or 50% around drinkers and feeders. Additionally, birds of each group had access to an area which was maintained as dry as possible (LM around 10%). Birds in control groups were completely kept on dry litter (LM 10 %). Foot pads of all birds were examined according to the external scoring system of Mayne et al. (2007a). Cross-sex comparisons showed a significant difference of prevalence and severity of foot pad dermatitis between turkeys of the test groups and those of the control groups. At the end of this experiment female turkeys had no higher severity of foot pad dermatitis than male turkeys.Thus, the present results indicate that already areas of wet litter within a dry stable may lead to an increase of the prevalence and severity of foot pad dermatitis during the early rearing period.